Melted Chocolate Science Experiment - 1030 Words

July 21, 2013 Introduction to Scientific Thought: Science Experiment Project Introduction My wife and I love to cook and especially love to make sweet things. Every year around late April or early May, we travel past Marble Falls to Sweet Berry Farms and hand pick strawberries to make our favorite sweet treats. My wife is somewhat of an expert in the making of strawberry jam and I dabble in desserts made with chocolate; strawberries dipped in milk, dark, and white chocolate are my personal favorites. I am not a professionally trained chef and don’t know much about how foods react to and inter-act with each other in a culinary or scientific manner, all I know is I really like to dip things in chocolate. My problem I had was that my†¦show more content†¦The independent variables are the following: * Boiling temperature of 1  ½ cups of tap water (Fahrenheit) * 3  ½ oz. of each type of chocolate * Same pot, containers, and thermometer used in a consistent manner The dependent variables are the following: * The amount of time each chocolate spends in the boiling water * How long the thermometer is kept in each type of chocolate * When each temperature is taken Experimental Methods Materials needed for the experiment: * 1 - 1 Quart Boiling Pot * 1 – Burner or heat source to boil water * 1 - 2 Cup Measuring Cup * 1 - 1  ½ cups of Tap Water * 1 – Pair of Tongs * 3 – 12 oz. Containers * 1 – 3  ½ oz. Lindt White Chocolate * 1 – 3  ½ oz. Lindt Milk Chocolate * 1 – 3  ½ oz. Lindt 70% Dark Chocolate * 1 – Cooking Thermometer * 1 – Towel to wipe thermometer The experiment will consist of the following steps: 1- Place 1  ½ cups of tap water into 1 quart boiling pot 2- Turn burner on high 3- Place 1 quart boiling pot on burner 4- Place 3  ½ oz. of each chocolate into the 12 oz. containers 5- Place 3  ½ oz. container of White chocolate into boiling pot as it is heating up 6- Bring 1  ½ cups of tap water to a boil 7- Keep the container of White chocolate in boiling water until it is fully melted 8- Remove the container of White chocolate fromShow MoreRelatedWhat Makes A Science Activity For Each Age Range1463 Words   |  6 Pages18 months to 2 years - Wet sand play, ice cube water play and washing dolls’ clothes and hanging them up to dry. 3 years to 5 years - planting a sunflower seed and watching it grow, making chocolate crispy cakes and finding out about floating and sinking in the water tray. 1.2. Describe a science activity for each age range. 18 months to 2 years (Wet sand play) - Adding water gradually to sand tray, so that children can feel how the texture of the sand changes as the water is added. Ice cubeRead MoreScience Fari Final Report for Oven Baked Ice Cream Essay2173 Words   |  9 PagesScience Fair 2012 By Anna Neuber Question If I put ice cream to bake in an oven, will the egg white and sugar mixture insulate it well enough so it won’t melt? Hypothesis If I put the ice cream into the egg white mixture and heat it up in the oven at 260 °, it will not melt because of the insulation. Variables Independent Variables The independent variables are those that are changed throughout the experiment. In my experiment I am going to change theRead MoreCandles: Wax and Cooking Oil3785 Words   |  16 Pagesset-up, which is a commercial candle, only consisting paraffin wax and some chemicals, added by the manufacturer. All set-ups have a wick of the same length and thickness. 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Randy Kraft Essays - 2476 Words

Randy Kraft Sotey Thomas Dr. K. Dowler California State University Stanislaus This research paper is based on the actions of the serial killer named Randy Kraft. This paper will contain three separate theories that will be used to describe and possibly answer reasons why he did what he did. The three theories that will be included are rational choice and routine activities from the Choice Theory, the social strain theory from the Social Structure Theory and the social control theories from the Social Process Theory. Randy Kraft was born in 1945 in Long Beach, California. Kraft was the 4th of 5 children and was the only boy. He was very accident prone and clumsy as a young boy but throughout school was very†¦show more content†¦His victims were specifically targeted because of their vulnerability without guardianship, whether it was a friend or just someone watching them in the bars. Opportunity was the main factor in this course of action as Kraft was on the look out for possible threats to his plans. As Katz explains in his methodology, the seductions in crime and immediate benefits were the rationale to Kraft. These acts could be equated to as the pain versus pleasure principle, and the pain had yet to come. These actions became more and more violent as it became easier for Kraft to perpetrate. Each victim fell to the motivations of Kraft and the opportunity they presented to him. The only thing that could stop this offender was being caught, which happened in the summer of 1983. He was stopped for a traffic violation and in the passenger seat was his last victim, found dead with his bloody yet intact testicles hanging out of his pants. The killing lasted over a time span of 13 years and Kraft was found guilty on 16 counts of murder, sodomy, and mutilation. He was sentenced to death in 1989; this was possibly his only deterrence from committing these acts again. The choices this man made are consistent with those explained in the routine and rational activities theory. Co hen and Felsons 3 elements of crime were absolutely correct, the victims being suitable targets and in this case the lack ofShow MoreRelatedSerial Killer Speech Essay984 Words   |  4 Pagesabnormal social emotions in real life. The study showed they lacked empathy and compassion. C. There is evidence that many serial killers suffered head injuries. Bobby Joe Long (motorcycle accident), Earle Nelson (childhood accident), Randy Kraft (fell down concrete steps), Albert Fish (fell from tree), David Berkowitz (auto accident), Kenneth Bianchi (fell off jungle gym), Raymond Fernandez (steel hatch cover on freighter fell on his head) and Carl Panzram (head infection where he wasRead MoreStarbucks Mission Strategic Choices5799 Words   |  24 Pagespast  success? 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Figure 10.12 Calculator output for the single-sample t test. This page intentionally left blank Chapter 11  © Randy Wells/Getty Images ââ€"   ââ€"   Comparing Two Populations or Treatments any investigations are carried out for the purpose of comparing two populations or treatments. For example, the article â€Å"Learn More, Earn More?† (ETS Policy Notes [1999]: 1–12) described

E-commerce and Online Shopping for World Bank- myassignmenthelp

Question: How e-commerce and online shopping affect singapores economy and its own citizens. Answer: Introduction The World Bank ranked Singapore as the second place to do business in the world after New Zealand. This has been facilitated by various factors including a fast-reliable IT network, tech savvy population and a highly dedicated government to ensure and promote and develop internet infrastructure and formulating favourable policies. It is estimated that by the year 2021 the mobile ad expenditure will grow up to $2.20 accounting for 69% of the total digital ad expenditure (Tandon, 201). A study done by a property consultancy group JLL in Singapore showed that over 60% of the population shop online or at least they base what to buy on the information they get online either with mobile phones or with computers. Literature Review The development of ecommerce has far-reaching impacts to the economy. The economic growth of most countries in Pacific Asia is attributed to the development of ICT as well as the digitalization of business according Fintech Singapore study (Singapore, 2018). The growth of online shopping and e commerce has the following thematic impacts on the general economy. The impacts have been seen to cause a good elevation towards the economy and people of Singapore. Development of ICT has played the major role in the economic growth of Singapore and its people. Employment According to the Ministry of Manpower statistics, unemployment rate in 2017 stood at 2.2 % (manpower, 2015).The development of e commerce has opened numerous employment channels to the residents of Singapore at different stages from ICT experts who develop web pages and shopping sites to sales agents who are online throughout the day to meet the needs of buyers at any time of the day. In addition, the need of easy and convenient delivery of goods purchased online lead to the need of employing people for the same purpose. As more people are employed, more business is expanded also the living conditions of the citizens is improved as they can afford a decent living (export.gov, 2017). Infrastructural Development Singapore has one of the most extensive and developed IT infrastructure in the world (Holodny, 2015). According to Singapore Business review newspaper, the government rolled out a $2.82 billion project in a bid to enhance ICT infrastructure and IT security (Singapore Business Review, 2016). The growth of online shopping demanded a well-developed physical infrastructure as well to facilitate quick and reliable means of transporting goods to the buyers as most of the sellers have do have delivery services (Chye Ong, 2016). Online advertising With over 81% of Singaporeans being able to access internet and the number increasing by over 10% in 2013 -2014, it creates a suitable and most efficient channel for marketing (Rajeck, 2016). The rapid and consistent growth of e commerce and online shopping has led to a massive growth in the online marketing agencies in Singapore (Anusha, 2016). This has been made possible because business can design adverts in a way that will attract their target audience, which in return will result into purchases. Business are also able to make more money by allowing business to advertise in their websites. This was various business support each other promoting the idea of e commerce even further (one, 2017) Greater competition The growth of online shopping has many advantages compared to those that trade in a physical shop, it has several setbacks one of them being the development of a stiff completion to the entry of new competing business both local and international that offer either same goods or alternative goods (Anusha, 2016). The increase in competition is because of introduction of new chains of distribution in the market (dot.econ, 2015). This has a direct impact on the success of any individual investor and if the external intrusion is great. The growth off local consumer innovativeness as new goods and new marketing methods have been developed to boost sales (Chan, 2013). Findings and analysis E- Commerce has a direct impact to both the final consumers and to the economy of the country. This is because majority of the citizens are employed and hence they can take afford a decent living. A healthy nation translates to a productive nation. In addition, the goodwill of the government to support small business that are trying to make it in the online platform has opened new channels to create jobs to the innovative population in Singapore (Sam Sharma, 2015). The infrastructural growth in Singapore has been on the rise due to the governments commitment to open the country to promote entrepreneurial spirit (Lu, Pang, Hang, Tailor, 2015). More IT experts have been employed leading to the growth of computer literate population. This has affected the economy positively has more revenue is collected from the exports that are made to other countries not only in Asia but also in Europe and Africa. The growth of e commerce has enables citizens of Singapore to make well-informed decisions before purchasing goods. This has been made possible by the availability of reliable access to internet and thus purchases are based on the information obtained online. This has eliminated chances of making impulse buying and doing away with intermediaries who sometimes exploit innocent unsuspecting buyers or sometimes forcing them to acquire goods they did not want. E-commerce has opened Singapores retail market hitting $4.4 billion in 2015. This is since majority of the citizens conduct business online. This retail market is expected to grow even further because of the growth of both local and international markets and a well receptive of Singapores goods in international market. This way Singapores business will be able to trade internationally bringing home more revenue for the government for economic development (Sebastian, 2016). Limitation of the study There is a gap in literature regarding the studies of Pacific Asia as majority of the scholars focuses on Europe and other countries in America. Countries such as Singapore whose culture is very different from those in Europe do not benefit from such studies, as the data obtained may not be relevant to Singapores current conditions. E-commerce is a broad and involving subject that requires a lot of time and resources to cover fully. In addition, the literature used to review might not cover it adequately and exhaustively considering that, it operates in an ever-changing environment. Some of the sources used in this study are not easy to verify that they contain correct information as not all sources have been approved for publishing. Conclusion E- Commerce has far-reaching impacts in any economy. The effects of online shopping to individual citizens vary as they are affected differently. Employment opportunities created by online business has boosted economic growth. Equally, the stiff competition experienced ensures that the goods offered are of high quality and business maintain ethics as they conduct business. Development of online marketing revolutionizes business and hence promoting economic growth in many ways. References Anusha, G. (2016). EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE ADVERTISING. International Journal of research, 14 - 21 B. (2013). The development of e?commerce in Singapore. EmerraldInsight. Chye, K., Ong, G. (2016). Sustainable Construction for Singapore's Urban Infrastructure. Procedia Engineering, 14 - 21. dot.econ. (2015, October 1). Retrieved from dotecon commerce : https://www.dotecon.com/assets/images/DotEcon-Ecommerce-Final-Report.pdf Export.gov. (2017). Singapore Country commercial Guide. Retrieved from Export.gov: https://stats.mom.gov.sg/Pages/Unemployment-Summary-Table.aspx# Holodny, E. (2015, October 02). Business Insider. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/wef-countries-best-infrastructure-world-2015-9?IR=T Lu , L. W., Pang, J., Hang, P. L., Tailor, N. (2015, December 2). E - Commerce in Singapore. Retrieved from Competition Commission: https://www.ura.gov.sg/Corporate/Resources/Ideas-and-Trends/Staying%20Ahead%20of%20the%20E-commerce%20Curve Manpower, M. o. (2015, March 15). Ministry of Manpower. Retrieved from https://stats.mom.gov.sg/Pages/Unemployment-Summary-Table.aspx# Mediaone. (n.d.). Media one. one, M. (2017, February 13). media one. Retrieved from MEDIAONE: https://mediaonemarketing.com.sg/conduct-digital-marketing-singapore/ Rajeck, J. (2016, March 23). Econsultancy. Retrieved from https://econsultancy.com/blog/67594-digital-marketing-in-singapore-101 Sam, C.-Y., Sharma, C. (2015). An exploration into the factors driving consumers in Singapore towards or away from adoption of online shopping. Global Businesses and Management Research. Sebastian, E. F. (2016). E commerce in Singapore. Sydney : University of Sydney . Singapore Business Review. (2016, May 23). Singapore Business reveiw . Retrieved from https://sbr.com.sg/information-technology/news/singapore-splurge-282-billion-tech-infrastructure-it-security-in-2016 Singapore, F. (2018, March 13). fintechnews . Retrieved from Fintechnews : https://fintechnews.sg/17834/fintech/e-commerce-in-sea-study-vietnam-leads-in-conversion-rate-singapore-is-the-biggest-spender/ Tandon, S. (2017, October 10). Digital Market Asia. Retrieved from https://www.digitalmarket.asia/digital-ad-spend-to-increase-by-double-digits-in-sea-emark

Year 1969 Essays - American Old West, , Term Papers

Year 1969 The year was 1969. Richard Nixon was president, astronaut Neil Armstrong walked on the moon, sesame street first aired, and the hippies were partying it up at Woodstock. Across the globe in southeast Asia a very unpopular war was being fought. The US had been fighting in Vietnam for four years. The American public had grown tired of this conflict.. Tired of seeing young men brought home in body bags. Tired of a government that didnt seem interested in trying to win. On may 10th a battle began that would forever change the war. It was fought on hill 937 located in the A Shau Valley in south Vietnam. This battle lasted over 6 days and according to an article posted on historynets website 46 merican men died and another 400 were wounded. These men died and were injured in vain since the hill was abandoned to the enemy just 2 short weeks later. Public outcry over this battle finally cause the government to begin withdrawing troops form Vietnam shortly thereafter. Because of the carnage i nflicted in this battle the survivors appropriately nicknamed it hamburger hill. Exactly 100 years earlier in America the race was on to connect East and West. Two railroad companies, the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific, were constructing a railroad line that would span a continent. The Union Pacific built westward across the great plains, and the Central Pacific built eastward from California. As the tracks from each railroad approached each other, the two railroads could not agree on a meeting point. According to an article on PBS website titled The Iron Road Congress finally stepped in and forced the 2 companies to agree on a meeting point. They settled on Promontory Point in Utah. On may 10 of 1869 the golden spike was driven signaling completion of americas first transcontinental railroad. Bibliography Works Cited Barna, Carl. Steel Rails and Iron Horses. Bureau of Land Management Website. 1996. 6 Sep. 2001. . The Iron Road. Public Broadcast Systems Website. 6 Sep. 2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/iron/. Summers, Harry. Hamburger Hill Revisited. The History Net Website. June 1999. 6 Sep. 2001. . American History

Hiv Pathophysiology Essay Example

Hiv Pathophysiology Essay Pathophysiology of the human immunodeficiency virus Nancy R. Calles, MSN, RN, PNP, ACRN, MPH Desiree Evans, MD, MPH DeLouis Terlonge, MD Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Provide an overview of the healthy immune system. Describe the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Describe the major components of the HIV life cycle. Identify the various HIV types and subtypes. Discuss HIV’s effects on the immune system. Overview The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus belonging to the family of lentiviruses. Retroviruses can use their RNA and host DNA to make viral DNA and are known for their long incubation periods. Like other retroviruses, HIV infects the body, has a long incubation period (clinical latency), and ultimately causes the signs and symptoms of disease, here AIDS. HIV causes severe damage to the immune system and eventually destroys it by using the DNA of CD4+ cells to replicate itself. In that process, the virus eventually destroys the CD4+ cells. Key Points 1. The immune system protects the body by recognizing invading antigens on pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) and reacting to them. 2. T lymphocytes, or T cells, regulate the immune system and destroy antigens. . HIV continuously uses new host cells to replicate itself. 4. The HIV life cycle includes six phases: binding and entry, reverse transcription, integration, replication, budding, and maturation. 5. Once HIV is in the circulatory system, it targets the CD4+ lymphocyte. 6. Two types of HIV cause AIDS: HIV type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2. 7. Primary infection refers to the time when HIV first enters the body. 8. Clinical latency refers to the time before onset of symptoms and complications in the HIV-infected individual. In HIV-infected adults, this phase may last 8-10 years. 9. We will write a custom essay sample on Hiv Pathophysiology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hiv Pathophysiology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hiv Pathophysiology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Early signs and symptoms of HIV can include candidiasis, lymphadenopathy, cervical carcinoma, herpes zoster, and peripheral neuropathy. 10. Late signs and symptoms of HIV and AIDS-defining illnesses can include the development of lifethreatening infections and malignancies. The Healthy Immune System The immune system protects the body by recognizing antigens on invading bacteria and viruses and reacting to them. An antigen is any substance that induces a state of sensitivity and immune responsiveness. These antigens interact with antibodies and immune cells, initiating an immune response. This process destroys the antigen, allowing the body to be free of infections. Types of antigens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. When the immune system is weakened or destroyed by a virus such as HIV, the body is left vulnerable to infections. The immune system consists of lymphoid organs and tissues, including the bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids, appendix, blood, and lymphatic vessels (Figure 1). All components of the immune system are vital in the production and development of lymphocytes, or white blood cells. B lymphocytes (or B cells) and T lymphocytes (or T cells) are produced from stem cells in the bone marrow. B cells stay in the bone marrow to complete the maturation process, but T lymphocytes travel to the thymus gland to complete their maturation. There T lymphocytes become immunocompetent, multiply, and become more differentiated. 7 HIV Curriculum for the Health Professional cells, T-suppressor cells, inhibits or suppresses immune responses. Normal CD8+ cell count is between 300 and 1,000 cells in adults and children. The normal CD4+:CD8+ ratio is between 1. 0 and 2. . T cells can secrete cytokines (chemicals that kill cells), such as interferon. Cytokines can bind to target cells and activate the inflammatory process. They also promote cell growth, activate phagocytes, and destroy target cells. Interleukins are cytokines that serve as messengers between white blood cells. Recombinant (laboratory synthesized) interleukins are currently being studied in clinical trials for patients with HIV infection. Tonsils and Adenoids Thymus Lymph Nodes Spleen Peyer’s Patches Appendix Bone Marrow Lymph Nodes Lymphatic Vessels Phagocytes Phagocytes include monocytes and macrophages, large white blood cells that engulf and digest cells carrying antigenic particles. Found throughout the body, phagocytes rid the body of worn-out cells, initiate the immune response by presenting antigens to lymphocytes, are important in immune response regulation and inflammation, and carry receptors for cytokines. Dendritic cells, another type of phagocyte, also are antigen-presenting cells. They have long, threadlike extensions that help trap lymphocytes and antigens and are found in the spleen and lymph nodes. Neutrophils are granulocytic phagocytes that are important in the inflammatory response. Figure 1. Organs of the Immune System B Lymphocytes The main function of B lymphocytes is humoral (antibody) immunity. Each B cell can recognize specific antigen targets and can secrete specific antibodies. Antibodies function by coating antigens, which makes the antigens more vulnerable to phagocytosis (engulfing and ingestion of invading organisms by leukocytes and/ or macrophages), or by triggering the complement system, leading to an inflammatory response. Antibodies are highly specialized serum protein molecules. They are grouped into five classes, each having a specialized function: immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. Complement The complement system consists of 25 proteins. Complement can induce an inflammatory response when it functions with antibodies to facilitate phagocytosis or weaken the bacterial cell membrane. The complement proteins interact with one another in a sequential activation cascade, promoting the inflammatory process. Despite the heavy artillery that the immune system has against foreign predators (Figures 2 and 3), HIV defeats it over time. T Lymphocytes T lymphocytes have two major functions: regulation of the immune system and killing of cells that bear specific target antigens. Each T cell has a surface marker, such as CD4+, CD8+, and CD3+, that distinguishes it from other cells. CD4+ cells are helper cells that activate B cells, killer cells, and macrophages when a specific target antigen is present. There are two main types of CD8+ cells. The first type, cytotoxic CD8+ cells, kills cells infected by viruses or bacteria, as well as cancer cells. The second type of CD8+ 8 HIV’s Structure HIV consists of a cylindrical center surrounded by a sphere-shaped lipid bilayer envelope. There are two major viral glycoproteins in this lipid bilayer, gp120 and gp41. The major function of these proteins is to mediate recognition of CD4+ cells and chemokine receptors, thereby enabling the virus to attach to and invade CD4+ cells. The inner sphere contains two single-stranded Pathophysiology of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Stem Cell Lymphoid Precursor Platelets Myeloid Precursor Helper T-Cell Eosinophil Monocyte H-Cell Cytotoxic T-Cell Suppressor T-Cell Neutrophil Mast Cell Basophil Macrophage Plasma Cell Figure 2. Cells of the immune system White Blood Cells Neutrophils Lymphocytes Eosinophils Basophils B-Cells T-Cells CD4+ CD8+ In charge of the army Summons B-cells, natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages Plans for a direct attack Binds directly to antigen and kills it Figure 3. Immune response by white blood cells 9 HIV Curriculum for the Health Professional copies of the genomic material, RNA, as well as multiple proteins and enzymes necessary for HIV replication and maturation: p24, p17, reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease (Figure 4). Unlike other retroviruses, HIV uses nine genes to code for the necessary proteins and enzymes. The three principal genes are gag, pol, and env. The gag gene encodes core proteins. The pol gene encodes the enzymes reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase. The env gene encodes the HIV structural components known as glycoproteins. The rest of the genes—rev, nef, vif, vpu, vpr, and tat—are important for viral replication and enhancing HIV’s infectivity rate. cells make their way to the lymph nodes and eventually to the peripheral blood, where viral replication becomes rapid. CD4+ lymphocytes that are recruited to respond to viral antigen migrate to the lymph nodes. These become activated and then proliferate via complex interaction of cytokines released in the microenvironment of the lymph nodes. This sequence of events makes the CD4+ cells more susceptible to HIV infection, and it explains the generalized lymphadenopathy characteristic of the acute retroviral syndrome seen in adults and adolescents. In contrast, HIV-infected monocytes allow viral replication but resist killing. Thus, monocytes act as reservoirs of HIV and as effectors of tissue damage in organs such as the brain. The HIV life cycle includes six phases: binding and entry, reverse transcription, integration, replication, budding, and maturation (Figure 5). HIV’s Life Cycle Host cells infected with HIV have a shortened life span as a result of the virus’s using them as â€Å"factories† to produce multiple copies of new HIV. Thus, HIV continuously uses new host cells to replicate itself. As many as 10 million to 10 billion virions (individual viruses) are produced daily. In the first 24 h after exposure, HIV attacks or is captured by dendritic cells in the mucous membranes and skin. Within 5 days after exposure, these infected Binding and Entry The envelope proteins gp120 and gp41 bind to CD4+ cell receptors and coreceptors on the outside of CD4+ cells HIV Structure Envelope Envelope Proteins gp120 gp41 Matrix Proteins p17 Core Proteins p14 RT RNA Integrase Protease Figure 4. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus 10 Pathophysiology of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus sCD4 CD4-lgG Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Zidovudine Didanosine Zalcitabine Stavudine Lamivudine Nevirapine Reverse transcription Protease Inhibitors Saquinavir Indinavir Ritonavir Nelfinavir Tat Antagonists Penetration Uncoating Trans- TransIntegration cription lation Assembly Release HIV HIV Double-stranded unintegrated DNA cDNA Host chormosome Proviral DNA CD4 and chemokine receptors Genomic RNA Viral mRNA Nucleus Cytoplasm Figure 5. The HIV life cycle This depiction of the HIV life cycle shows the sites of action of some antiretroviral agents. and macrophages. The chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 facilitate viral entry. T-cell tropic viruses require CXCR4 to bind, and macrotropic strains of the virus require CCR5. R5 is the most common virus transmitted during acute infection, and later during infection X4 is the virus that is most common. The presence of a homozygous inactive mutation of the CCR5 allele has caused resistance to infection by the R5 virus. The joining of the proteins and the receptors and coreceptors fuses the HIV membrane with the CD4+ cell membrane, and the virus enters the CD4+ cell and macrophage. The HIV membrane and the envelope proteins remain outside of the CD4+ cell, whereas the core of the virus enters the CD4+ cell. CD4+ cell enzymes interact with the viral core and stimulate the release of viral RNA and the viral enzymes reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease. incorporation must occur for the virus to multiply. The conversion of HIV RNA to DNA is known as reverse transcription and is mediated by the HIV enzyme reverse transcriptase. The result is the production of a single strand of DNA from the viral RNA. The single strand of this new DNA then undergoes replication into doublestranded HIV DNA. Integration Once reverse transcription has occurred, the viral DNA can enter the nucleus of the CD4+ cell. The viral enzyme integrase then inserts the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell’s DNA. This process is known as integration. The CD4+ cell has now been changed into a factory used to produce more HIV. Replication The new DNA, which has been formed by the integration of the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell, causes the production of messenger DNA that initiates the synthesis of HIV proteins. Reverse Transcription The HIV RNA must be converted to DNA before it can be incorporated into the DNA of the CD4+ cell. This 11 HIV Curriculum for the Health Professional Budding The HIV proteins and viral RNA, all the components needed to make a new virus, gather at the CD4+ cell membrane to form new viruses. These new viruses push through the different parts of the cell wall by budding. Many viruses can push through the wall of one CD4+ cell. These new viruses leave the CD4+ cell and contain all the components necessary to infect other CD4+ cells. Subtypes are unevenly distributed throughout the world. Subtype C currently accounts for more than half of all new HIV infections worldwide. Africa has most subtypes, although subtype B is less prevalent. There are no known subtypes of HIV-2. Effects on the Immune System The pathogenesis of HIV is basically a struggle between HIV replication and the immune responses of the patient, via cell-mediated and immune-mediated reactions. The HIV viral burden directly and indirectly mediates CD4+ T-cell destruction. There is destruction of mature CD4+ cells; CD4+ progenitor cells in bone marrow, the thymus, and peripheral lymphoid organs; as well as CD4+ cells within the nervous system, such as microglia. The result of this destruction is failure of T-cell production and eventual immune suppression. There are many mechanisms of CD4+ cell depletion by HIV infection. Direct HIV-mediated cytopathic effects include single-cell killing as well as cell fusion, or syncytium formation. The syncytium is a fusion of multiple uninfected CD4+ cells with one HIV-infected CD4+ cell via CD4–gp120 interaction. This fusion results in a multinucleated syncytium, or giant cell, which may ultimately serve as a means to produce many virions. The host’s natural immune responses also play a role in CD4+ cell depletion, mainly through cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, and natural killer cells. Other mechanisms include autoimmune responses, anergy, superantigen-mediated activation of T cells, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). HIV can infect many types of cells. The spread of HIV outside lymphoid organs to the brain, spinal cord, lung, colon, liver, and kidney usually occurs late during illness. Table 1 gives a partial list of cells susceptible to HIV infection. The immune systems of HIV-infected children undergo changes that are similar to those in adults. B-cell activation occurs in most children early in the infection, evidenced by the presence of hypergammaglobulinemia (gt;1. 750 g/L) with high levels of anti–HIV-1 antibody. This reflects both dysregulation of T-cell suppression of B-cell antibody synthesis as well as active CD4+ enhancement of B-lymphocyte humoral response. Also, as HIV disease progresses through more severe immunosuppression and depletion of CD4+ cells, the CD8+ count increases, yielding an overall decrease in the CD4+:CD8+ ratio. Maturation The new virus has all the components necessary to infect other CD4+ cells but cannot do so until it has matured. During this process, the HIV protease enzyme cuts the long HIV proteins of the virus into smaller functional units that then reassemble to form a mature virus. The virus is now ready to infect other cells. HIV Types There are two types of HIV that cause AIDS: HIV type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2. We know little about HIV-2. Studies have shown striking similarities but also important differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2. They have the same modes of transmission and are associated with the same opportunistic infections, but HIV-2 appears to progress more slowly. Most HIV-2 cases are found in western Africa and in countries related to western Africa in some way such as Portugal, France, Angola, Mozambique, Brazil, and India. Various subtypes of HIV-1 have been found in specific geographic areas and in specific high-risk groups. A person can be coinfected with different subtypes. The following are HIV-1 subtypes and their geographic distributions: Subtype A: Central Africa, sub-Saharan Africa Subtype B: South America, Brazil, United States, Thailand, Europe, Caribbean, India, Japan Subtype C: Brazil, India, South Africa Subtype D: Central Africa, sub-Saharan Africa Subtype E: Thailand, Central African Republic, Southeast Asia Subtype F: Brazil, Romania, Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) Subtype G: Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Gabon, Thailand, Russia, Central Africa Subtype H: Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Gabon, Russia, Central Africa Subtype I: Cyprus Subtype O: Cameroon, Gabon 12 Pathophysiology of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Table 1. Cells Susceptible to HIV Infection System Hematopoietic Cell †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ T-cells (CD4+ OR CD 8+) Macrophages/monocytes Dendritic cells Fetal thymocytes and thymic epithelium B-cells NK cells Megakaryotic cells Stem cells Microglia Capillary endothelial cells Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes differentiating symptom that is often absent is the presence of a runny nose or nasal congestion. During primary infection, the CD4+ count in the blood decreases remarkably but rarely drops to less than 200 cells/? L. The virus targets CD4+ cells in the lymph nodes and the thymus during this time, making the HIV-infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and limiting the thymus’s ability to produce T lymphocytes. HIV antibody testing using an enzymelinked immunosorbent assay or enzyme immunoassay may yield positive or negative results depending on the time of seroconversion. DNA PCR and RNA PCR will be positive, but confirmation with Western blot analysis may yield an indeterminate result because seroconversion can take up to 2–8 weeks to occur. The average time to seroconversion is 25 days. Central Nervous Large Intestine Other †¢ Columnar epithelium †¢ Kupfer cells (liver †¢ Synovial cells †¢ Placental tophoblast cells Clinical Latency/Asymptomatic Disease (Clinical Stage 1) Although patients recently infected with HIV usually experience a â€Å"clinically latent† period of years between HIV infection and clinical signs and symptoms of AIDS, evidence of HIV replication and host immune system destruction exists from the onset of infection. Early during this time, referred to as Clinical Stage 1 , the immune system produces antibodies in an attempt to protect itself from HIV. This is when the â€Å"viral set point† is established. The viral load of the set point can be used to predict how quickly disease progression will occur. People with higher viral load set points tend to exhibit more rapid disease progression than those with lower viral load set points. During latency, HIV-infected patients may or may not have signs and symptoms of HIV infection though persistent lymphadenopathy is common. In HIVinfected adults, this phase may last 8–10 years. The HIV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot or immunofluorescence assay will be positive. The CD4+ count is greater than 500 cells/? L in children over 5 years of age. Adapted from Levy L. A. Microbiological Reviews, 57:183-289, March 1993 Clinical Categories of HIV Infection Children infected with HIV often have severe disease when first evaluated, or they may develop AIDS over time, much like adults infected with HIV. Infants and young children normally have higher CD4+ counts than those of adults. The normal CD4+ count in children varies with age, but it is equal to the adult value by the time the child is 6 years old. Immunologic and clinical categories are used to evaluate the HIV disease status in children and to make treatment decisions. Primary Infection, or Acute Retroviral Syndrome Primary infection refers to the time when HIV first enters the body. At the time of primary infection with HIV, a person’s blood carries a high viral load, meaning that there are many individual viruses in the blood. The number of copies of virus per milliliter of plasma or blood can exceed 1 million. Newly infected adults often experience an acute retroviral syndrome. Signs and symptoms of acute retroviral syndrome include fever, myalgia (muscle pain), headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, night sweats, weight loss, and rash. These signs and symptoms usually occur 2–4 weeks after infection, subside after a few days, and often are misdiagnosed as influenza or infectious mononucleosis. An important Mild Signs and Symptoms of HIV (Clinical Stage 2) HIV-infected people may appear to be healthy for years, and then minor signs and symptoms of HIV infection begin to appear. They may develop candidiasis, lymphadenopathy, molluscom contagiosum, persistent 13 HIV Curriculum for the Health Professional hepatosplenomegaly, popular pruritic eruptions, herpes zoster, and/or peripheral neuropathy. The viral load increases, and the CD4+ count falls is between 350-499/ uL in children older than 5 years. Once patients are in this stage they remain in stage 2. They can be reassigned stage 3 or 4 if a condition from one of those occurs, but they cannot be reassigned to Clinical Stage 1 or 2 if they become asymptomatic. References 1. Behrman RE, Kliegman RM, Jenson HB. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 2004. 2. Bullock BL, Rosendahl PP. Immunity: Pathophysiology Adaptations and Alterations in Function. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1992. . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1994). 1994 revised classification system for human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 13 years of age. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 1994;43(RR-12):1–10. 4. Lusso P. (2006). HIV and the chemokine system: 10 years later. EMBO J. 2006;25:447–456. 5. Montero J, Nadler JP. Pathophysiology of HIV Infection. In HIV/AIDS Primary Care Guide. Crown House Publishing L imited; 2005:1–14. 6. Noble R. Introduction to HIV types, groups and subtypes. http://www. avert. org/hiv-types. htm. Accessed June 24, 2009. 7. Azevedo-Pereira JM, Moniz-Pereira J, Santos-Costa Q. HIV-2 infection and chemokine receptor usage— clues to reduced virulence of HIV-2. Curr. HIV Res. 2005;3:3–16. 8. Klatt EC. Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Pathology of AIDS. University of Utah; 1999. 9. Ungvarske PJ, Flasderud HJ. Overview and Update of HIV/AIDS: A Guide to Primary Care and Management. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 1999. 10. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases. Understanding the Immune System and How It Works. Bethesda, MD; 2007. Advanced Signs and Symptoms of HIV (Clinical Stage 3) HIV-infected patients with weakened immune systems can develop life-threatening infections. The development of cryptosporidiosis, pulmonary and lymph node tuberculosis, wasting, persistent fever (longer than one month), persistent candidasis, recurrent bacterial pneumonia, and other opportunistic infections is common. These patients may be wasting, or losing weight. Their viral load continues to increase, and the CD4+ count falls to less than 200-349 cells/? L in children older than 5 years. Clinical Stage 4 Patients with advanced HIV disease, or AIDS, can continue to develop new opportunistic infections, such as Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (formerly Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia), cytomegalovirus infection, toxoplasmosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, cryptococcal meningitis, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, Kaposi sarcoma and other infections that commonly occur with a severely depressed immune system. The viral load is very high, and the CD4+ count is less than 200 cells/? L in children older than 5 years. At this point in the disease course death can be imminent. 14

Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, Saxon Ruler

Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, Saxon Ruler Aethelflaed (Ethelfleda) was the eldest child and daughter of Alfred the Great and sister of Edward the Elder, king of Wessex (ruled 899-924). Her mother was Ealhswith, who was from the ruling family of Mercia. Who She Was   She married Aethelred, lord  (ealdorman) of Mercia,  in 886. They had a daughter, Ælfwynn. Aethelflaeds father Alfred put London in the care of his son-in-law and daughter. She and her husband supported the Church, giving generous grants to local religious communities. Aethelred joined her husband Aethelred and her father in fighting against Danish invaders. How Aethelred Died In 911 Aethelred was killed in battle with the Danes, and Aethelflaed became the political and military ruler of the Mercians. She may have been the de facto ruler for a few years during her husbands illness. After her husbands death, the people of Mercia gave her the title Lady of the Mercians, a feminine version of the title that her husband had held. Her Legacy She built fortresses in western Mercia as a defense against invading and occupying Danes. Aethelflaed took an active role, and led her forces against the Danes at Derby and captured it, and then defeated them at Leicester. Aethelflaed even invaded Wales in retribution for the killing of an English Abbott and his party. She captured the wife of the king and 33 others and held them as a hostage. In 917, Aethelflaed captured Derby and was able to take power in Leicester. The Danes there submitted to her rule. Final Resting Place In 918, the Danes in York offered their allegiance to Aethelflaed as protection against Norwegians in Ireland. Aethelflaed died that year. She was buried at the monastery of St. Peter at Gloucester, one of the monasteries built with funds from her Aethelred and Aethelflaed. Aethelflaed was succeeded by her daughter Aelfwyn, whom Aethelflaed had made a joint ruler with her. Edward, who already controlled Wessex, seized the kingdom of Mercia from Aelfwyn, took her captive, and thus solidified his control over most of England. Aelfwyn is not known to have married and may have gone to a convent. Edwards son, Aethestan, who ruled 924-939, was educated at the court of Aethelred and Aethelflaed. Known for:  defeating the Danes at Leicester and Derby, invading Wales Occupation:  Mercian ruler (912-918) and military leader Dates:  872-879? - June 12, 918 Also known as:  Ethelfleda, Ethelflaed,  Aelfled, Æthelflà ¦d, Aeoelfled Family Father: Alfred the Great (Ælfred), ruled Wessex 871-899.  He was the son of  Ãƒâ€ thelwulf, King of Wessex and his first wife, Osburh (Osburga).  Mother: Ealhswith of the Gaini, daughter of  Ãƒâ€ thelred Mucil  of the Gaini tribe and Eadburh, a Mercian royal.  As was Saxon custom, she was not crowned or titled queen.Brother: Edward the Elder, king of Wessex (ruled 899-924)Sister: Aethelgiva, Abbess of ShaftesburyBrother: Aethelwaerd (three sons with no descendants)Sister:  Aelfthryth, married Baldwin, Count of Flanders (Aelfthryth was the 4th great-grandmother of  Matilda of Flanders, married to William the Conqueror, and thus an ancestor of later British royalty)Husband: Aethelred (Ethelred, Æthelrà ¦d), Earl of MerciaDaughter: Aelfwyn (Aelfwynn, Ælfwynn, Ælfwyn,  Elfwina)

Evaluation of the national energy investment opportunities in wind Essay

Evaluation of the national energy investment opportunities in wind generation in Uk - Essay Example The current energy market consists of nuclear energy technology, hydroelectric systems, fossil fuels (i.e. coal and petroleum), with a sudden emergence in recent years of wind power development processes. This research project will focus specifically on electrical energy, with major players including nPower, E-On, Scottish Power and EDF (Boilers Prices, 2012). Currently, 91.4 percent of all electricity utilised in the UK come from traditional, non-renewable sources which indicates a need for further growth in renewable technology in this market. The entire UK energy market is currently valued at over ?28 billion (Research and Markets, 2008), which represents significant profit opportunities for the Big 6 energy providers, corporate investment and various venture capitalists looking for return on investment in energy. Passing of the Planning Act in 2008 provided new opportunities for all of these firms and independent investors to contribute more capital to infrastructure development by establishing a singular consent regime advocating more liberal government-mandated policies for what is referred to as Nationally Significant Infrastructure Projects (Sustainable Development Commission, 2012). 3. UK renewable energy strategy The European Union has been integral in dictating policy regarding the renewable energy strategies for member nations. In 2001, the EU Renewables Directive proposed a target for member nations to achieve 22.1 percent development of renewable electricity (Dept of Energy and Climate Change, 2010). This Renewables Directive highlights specific, incremental steps necessary to achieve this target including solar photovoltaic, hydroelectricity and wind power. The UK share of this directive was to be 10 percent renewable electricity by 2010 (DECC, 2012), a target met when including wind and other renewable project developments in the UK. Currently, renewable electricity accounts for 9.6 percent of total UK renewable delivery with a significant surge in wind technology since 2007, a rise in output of 120 percent annually (Guardian.co.uk, 2011). Figure 1 illustrates the significant growth in renewable with an emphasis on wind power from 1997 to 2007. Figure 1: National Statistics Illustrating Growth in Renewable Energy Sources Source: uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports (2009). Statistics on Renewable Energy Improvements 1997-2007. Growth in renewable technology is being promoted by national government, local community government, corporate investment, and even consumer sentiment about sustainable living that influences both policy makers and development of investment firms dedicated to improving renewable energy source production. For instance, the Carbon Trust, an independent yet governmentally funded company is currently a major advocate for renewable energy sources, reinvesting capital from various commercial activities and reapplying this capital to achieve this mission (Carbon Trust, 2012). Partnerships between governmental actors , corporate investors, and independent companies like Carbon Trust have assisted in making progress to have more transparent renewable markets internationally and domestically. They have influenced the implementation of the Climate Change Bill, a measure providing liberalisation, incentives